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Zip is our best overall starting point for teams that want to bring procurement workflows together and guide purchase requests. But there is no universal winner: large source-to-pay programs may fit Coupa or SAP Ariba, while labs, food distributors and public agencies have more specialized options. Pricing is a major caveat across this list. Many vendors do not publish a starting price, and some listed prices lack a stated billing period. Treat rankings as a shortlist, then confirm scope, limits and total cost in writing.
Quick picksThe shortlist
ZipZipBest overall · Custom
CoupaCoupaBest for broad spend · $41.58/mo
ProcurifyProcurifyBest for purchasing approvals · Custom
Order.coOrder.coBest for centralized purchasing · Custom
JAGGAERJAGGAERBest for sourcing and contracts · Custom
SAP AribaSAP AribaBest for SAP-centered teams · $4.17/mo
IvaluaIvaluaBest for configurable workflows · Custom- DSSIDSSIBest for multi-site procurement · Custom
ChocoChocoBest for food distributors · Free
QuartzyQuartzyBest for lab purchasing · $50/mo
PaymentWorksPaymentWorksBest for vendor controls · Free
TropicTropicBest for software renewals · $3,083/mo
VerticeVerticeBest for negotiation support · $20,000/mo
CandexCandexBest for many suppliers · Custom
Workday VNDLYWorkday VNDLYBest for contingent workforces · Custom
CertaCertaBest for third-party risk · Custom
ZycusZycusBest for AI-guided intake · Custom
LevelpathLevelpathBest for audit controls · Custom
VendrVendrBest for tech spend · $20,000/mo
PrendioPrendioBest for biotech purchasing · Custom
SMART by GEPSMART by GEPBest for source-to-pay consolidation · Custom
FairmarkitFairmarkitBest for tail-spend sourcing · Custom
Bonfire by EunaBonfire by EunaBest for public procurement · Custom
TradeshiftTradeshiftBest for e-invoicing · Free
KeelvarKeelvarBest for complex sourcing events · Custom
GlobalityGlobalityBest for sourcing automation · Custom
BaswareBaswareBest for invoice compliance · Custom- Bonfire by EunaBonfire by EunaBest for public procurement · Custom
CorcentricCorcentricBest for fleet costs · Custom
SAP FieldglassSAP FieldglassBest for services procurement · Custom
OmneaOmneaBest for verified product fit · Custom
01Compared at a glance
| Tool | Score | From | Free plan | Trial |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZipZip | 6.3 | Custom | No | — |
| CoupaCoupa | 6.0 | $41.58/mo | Yes | — |
| ProcurifyProcurify | 6.0 | Custom | No | — |
| Order.coOrder.co | 6.0 | Custom | No | — |
| JAGGAERJAGGAER | 6.5 | Custom | No | — |
| SAP AribaSAP Ariba | 5.2 | $4.17/mo | Yes | — |
| IvaluaIvalua | 6.0 | Custom | No | — |
| DSSIDSSI | 6.2 | Custom | No | — |
| ChocoChoco | 6.5 | Free | Yes | — |
| QuartzyQuartzy | 6.5 | $50/mo | No | — |
| PaymentWorksPaymentWorks | 6.5 | Free | Yes | — |
| TropicTropic | 6.0 | $3,083/mo | No | — |
| VerticeVertice | 6.4 | $20,000/mo | No | — |
| CandexCandex | 5.8 | Custom | No | — |
| Workday VNDLYWorkday VNDLY | 6.2 | Custom | No | — |
| CertaCerta | 6.2 | Custom | No | — |
| ZycusZycus | 5.8 | Custom | No | — |
| LevelpathLevelpath | 5.0 | Custom | No | — |
| VendrVendr | 5.3 | $20,000/mo | No | — |
| PrendioPrendio | 6.2 | Custom | No | — |
| SMART by GEPSMART by GEP | 5.8 | Custom | No | — |
| FairmarkitFairmarkit | 6.5 | Custom | No | — |
| Bonfire by EunaBonfire by Euna | 6.5 | Custom | No | — |
| TradeshiftTradeshift | 6.5 | Free | Yes | — |
| KeelvarKeelvar | 6.2 | Custom | No | — |
| GlobalityGlobality | 5.8 | Custom | No | — |
| BaswareBasware | 5.5 | Custom | No | — |
| Bonfire by EunaBonfire by Euna | 6.5 | Custom | No | — |
| CorcentricCorcentric | 5.2 | Custom | No | — |
| SAP FieldglassSAP Fieldglass | 3.0 | Custom | No | — |
| OmneaOmnea | 4.2 | Custom | No | — |
02The picks, in detail
- Best overallZipZip
Zip leads for broad buyer fit: its listed strengths include consolidated procurement workflows, guided request intake, and supplier and contract processes. That makes it a sensible first shortlist for teams trying to centralize purchasing. The pricing page does not publish a price, however, so confirm plan scope and total cost before treating it as the best-value option.
What works
- Covers intake-to-procure and procure-to-pay
- Includes purchase order and invoice management
- Provides a guided supplier onboarding portal
What doesn't
- Monthly and annual prices are not published
- No starting price is available
- Plan tiers are not listed on the vendor's site
- Best for broad spendCoupaCoupa
Coupa suits large procurement and finance teams looking for broad spend workflows, and its supplier network is a stated use case. The listed starting price is $41.58 and a free plan is noted, but the core-platform quote is still important for judging value. Ask which capabilities and limits apply to the plan you are offered.
What works
- Covers purchasing, accounts payable and digital payments
- Includes sourcing and spend-visibility capabilities
- Offers supply chain planning and optimization tools
What doesn't
- Core platform pricing is custom and not published
- Published supplier-plan prices are annual, not monthly billing
- Supplier-plan limits and inclusions are partly unpublished
- Best for purchasing approvalsProcurifyProcurify
Procurify connects purchasing requests with accounts payable and supports budget management across locations, making it a relevant option for teams formalizing approvals. Its listed price is not published, and the published information does not specify plan limits. Get a quote that spells out workflow coverage, integrations and any capacity constraints before comparing it with alternatives.
What works
- Connects requests, approvals, POs and invoices
- Routes approvals by department, location, account code or amount
- Matches invoices with purchase orders and receipts
What doesn't
- Monthly and annual prices are not published
- Pro-user limits are not published
- Platform usage limits are not published
- Best for centralized purchasingOrder.coOrder.co
Order.co is aimed at businesses centralizing purchasing and payments, with catalog and approval controls among its stated strengths. That makes it worth comparing for teams looking to manage more of the purchasing lifecycle in one place. Pricing is not published, so request a quote and confirm which features, payment workflows and limits are included.
What works
- Manages purchasing from requisition through payment
- Combines approvals, budgets and compliance controls
- Supports supplier sourcing by price and availability
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- A demo is required for pricing
- No free plan is listed
- Best for sourcing and contractsJAGGAERJAGGAER
JAGGAER covers broad procurement workflows, sourcing and contracts, and lists policy-aware AI assistance as a strength. It could fit organizations needing more than request approvals alone. Pricing is not published, and the published material flags a reported 30% renewal increase. Ask for renewal terms, escalation rules and a complete quote before signing.
What works
- Covers sourcing, contracts, purchasing and supplier onboarding
- AI Workers support intake, analysis and sourcing tasks
- Human approval checkpoints are part of AI workflows
What doesn't
- Starting price and billing cadence are not public
- Pricing is custom quote only
- Free-plan availability is listed as no
- Best for SAP-centered teamsSAP AribaSAP Ariba
SAP Ariba is a candidate for enterprise teams seeking broad source-to-pay coverage, particularly when procurement already centers on SAP. The listed starting price is $4.17 and a free plan is noted, but the buyer price is described as opaque. Supplier feedback also raises usability concerns, so verify the buyer workflow and total platform quote.
What works
- Covers sourcing through invoicing
- Includes contract compliance management
- Supports policy checks and purchasing approvals
What doesn't
- Buyer pricing is custom and unpublished
- Buyer seat and usage limits are unpublished
- Paid supplier tiers can incur transaction fees
- Best for configurable workflowsIvaluaIvalua
Ivalua offers broad source-to-pay coverage and configurable procurement workflows for enterprises prepared to request a custom quote. It belongs on a shortlist when teams need flexibility across procurement processes, but the published information flags adoption risks. Clarify implementation effort, user requirements, pricing and which workflows are covered before comparing it with simpler options.
What works
- Covers intake, sourcing, contracts and supplier management
- Includes eProcurement and accounts payable automation
- Offers AI features, according to the product description
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Seat and usage limits are not published
- Pricing is custom by quote
- Best for multi-site procurement
DSSIDSSI
DSSI is positioned for multi-site procurement, indirect and MRO spend, and invoice workflow automation. That focus makes it more relevant to distributed operations than to a small team seeking basic purchasing approvals. Pricing is not published. Request a detailed quote and confirm site, user, invoice and integration terms before judging its cost against broader suites.
What works
- Centralizes purchasing workflows across multiple sites
- Curated catalogs support contract compliance
- Approval rules can use budget, location or category
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Standard tiers and limits are not published
- Pricing is custom and quote-based
- Best for food distributorsChocoChoco
Choco is a specialized option for food and beverage distributors handling orders across channels, with ecommerce and CRM listed for wholesalers. That makes it a better fit for those businesses than a general procurement shortlist. A free plan is noted, but no starting price is published. Ask suppliers for a quote and verify what the free plan includes.
What works
- Restaurants can use Choco for free
- Captures orders from voicemail, email, text and handwriting
- Sends captured orders to the ERP
What doesn't
- Supplier pricing is not published
- Implementation fee amount is not published
- Annual billing is not published
- Best for lab purchasingQuartzyQuartzy
Quartzy combines purchasing and inventory coverage for labs, including tracking lots and expiration dates, with procurement integrations listed as a strength. Its starting price is $50, though the published information does not state a billing period. Academic teams should compare that cost with free alternatives and confirm the features and limits included before committing.
What works
- Connects requests, approvals, orders, receipts, and invoices
- Tracks inventory by location, lot, and expiration date
- Shows spend by team, project, and grant
What doesn't
- No free plan is listed
- Academia starts at $600 per year, billed annually
- Industry starts at $3,000 per year, billed annually
- Best for vendor controlsPaymentWorksPaymentWorks
PaymentWorks is aimed at organizations paying vendors through ERP systems, with vendor onboarding, maintenance and ACH payment protection among its stated use cases. A free plan is noted, but its starting price is not published. It is worth evaluating for vendor controls; ask for a buyer quote and clarify what protection and workflows each plan covers.
What works
- Standard vendor registration is listed at $0
- Automates vendor onboarding and maintenance
- Includes ACH payment indemnification
What doesn't
- Buyer pricing is custom-quoted
- Monthly and annual rates aren’t published
- Seat and usage limits aren’t published
- Best for software renewalsTropicTropic
Tropic targets finance and procurement teams managing software renewals and seeking supplier pricing intelligence. Its listed starting price is $3,083, with no billing period specified in the published information, so buyers should confirm the commitment and included scope. The published material has no relevant user feedback, making direct reference checks especially useful.
What works
- Supplier pricing and negotiation intelligence are included
- Renewal Agent and Proposal Agent are included
- Unlimited users; no per-user license fee
What doesn't
- Starting price is $3,083 per month
- Price is based on employees
- Annual billing and discounts are not published
- Best for negotiation supportVerticeVertice
Vertice is positioned for indirect procurement, SaaS renewal and usage tracking, and negotiation support for finance teams. Its listed starting price is $20,000, but the billing period and included scope are not specified here. It may suit complex procurement needs, provided you get clear pricing, renewal terms and a detailed explanation of what the quote covers.
What works
- Combines intake, approvals and procure-to-pay workflows
- Tracks SaaS renewals, usage and spend
- Intake-to-Procure includes 70+ procurement agents
What doesn't
- Starting price is $20,000
- Billing period for the starting price is unstated
- Plan-specific prices are not published
- Best for many suppliersCandexCandex
Candex is designed for buyers managing many trading partners across multiple countries, with fewer vendor setups as a stated benefit. That could make it relevant where supplier administration is a central problem. Pricing is not published, and the published summary notes a variable fee. Ask how that fee is calculated and include it in vendor quotes.
What works
- Reduces the need to set up each trading partner
- Candex invoices buyers as the master vendor
- Sellers invoice Candex for goods and services
What doesn't
- Fee is usually 3% per engagement and can vary
- No monthly or annual subscription prices are published
- Managed deployment and integration fees are not published
- Best for contingent workforcesWorkday VNDLYWorkday VNDLY
Workday VNDLY is a broad vendor management system option for large contingent-workforce programs, Workday HCM customers and teams managing SOW projects. The published information does not publish pricing, so a cost comparison requires a custom quote. Confirm the exact capabilities and implementation needs for your program, then scrutinize the claimed return on investment.
What works
- Manages contingent workers from requisition through offboarding
- Includes SOW project organization and progress tracking
- Supports configurable approval workflows
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Monthly and annual billing terms are not published
- Pricing is customized, making value hard to assess upfront
- Best for third-party riskCertaCerta
Certa focuses on enterprise third-party risk and consolidating compliance workflows, with configurable AI workflows also listed. It is a shortlist candidate for teams trying to organize those processes in one platform. Pricing and capacity limits are not supplied, so ask how the quote scales, what limits apply and which compliance workflows are included.
What works
- Coordinates onboarding, risk, and compliance in one layer
- Includes document classification, extraction, validation, and fraud checks
- Pre-fills questionnaires using documents and trusted web sources
What doesn't
- Pricing is custom, with no starting price published
- Seat limits are not published
- Usage limits are not published
- Best for AI-guided intakeZycusZycus
Zycus offers broad source-to-pay coverage, AI-guided procurement intake, sourcing and supplier tools according to the published summary. That breadth may appeal to enterprises evaluating a suite rather than a point solution. Pricing is not published. Get support commitments and change-request terms in writing, alongside plan scope and the cost of any requested changes.
What works
- Covers source-to-pay and several procurement workflows
- Merlin guides intake and policy-compliant routing
- Negotiation agent handles price and supplier terms
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Seat and usage limits are not published
- Free trial availability is not published
- Best for audit controlsLevelpathLevelpath
Levelpath is aimed at enterprises centralizing procurement workflows, automating sourcing and contract review, and requiring agent controls and audit logs. Those stated requirements make it a specialized shortlist choice for teams prioritizing governance. Pricing is not published, making the business case difficult to assess. Request a quote tied to your required controls and workflows.
What works
- Covers sourcing, contracts, suppliers, risk, and payments
- Can generate RFPs and qualify suppliers
- Searches contracts and flags clause-level risks
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Monthly and annual billing details are not published
- No free plan or trial is listed in the pricing information
- Best for tech spendVendrVendr
Vendr targets teams with sizable technology spend that want negotiation support and consolidated procurement workflows. Its listed starting price is $20,000, with the billing period and included scope not specified on the vendor's site. The published material also flags uneven user reports. Check references and verify the cost against the savings and services in your quote.
What works
- Pricing benchmarks draw on real software deals
- Contract reviews flag renewal and pricing risks
- Agents can negotiate with human oversight
What doesn't
- Starting price is $20,000; billing period is unspecified
- No free plan is listed
- Reddit users report missed renewals
- Best for biotech purchasingPrendioPrendio
Prendio is a life-sciences-focused procure-to-pay option for biotech teams, including firms using NetSuite and needing supplier punchouts. Its specialization may suit those organizations better than a general procurement system. Pricing is custom and not published, so request a quote that identifies integration coverage, supplier punchout scope and any costs tied to your setup.
What works
- Built around life-sciences procurement workflows
- Supplier punchouts included without extra fees
- NetSuite integration is available
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Pricing requires booking a demo
- Monthly and annual terms are not published
- Best for source-to-pay consolidationSMART by GEPSMART by GEP
SMART by GEP offers a wide-ranging source-to-pay platform for enterprise teams seeking workflow consolidation and AI-led orchestration. The published information does not publish pricing, and buyer feedback is too opaque for an easy recommendation. Ask for customer references, a detailed quote and a clear account of which workflows and AI capabilities are included.
What works
- Covers sourcing through payments
- Includes contract and supplier workflows
- Offers spend and category management
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Monthly and annual terms are not published
- Pricing is custom-quoted
- Best for tail-spend sourcingFairmarkitFairmarkit
Fairmarkit is positioned for enterprise procurement teams automating tail-spend sourcing and handling end-to-end RFx workflows. That makes it worth considering when sourcing automation is the main requirement, rather than assuming it covers every procurement need. Pricing and buyer evidence are thin in the published material. Request a scoped quote and references for similar use cases.
What works
- Intake agent helps build compliant sourcing requests
- Supplier discovery and renewals are included
- Supports RFx events from simple to complex
What doesn't
- Starting price and contract rates are not published
- Plan limits and included volumes are not specified
- Free-trial availability is not published
- Best for public procurementBonfire by EunaBonfire by Euna
Bonfire by Euna is built around government procurement use cases, including public solicitations and centralized supplier and contract data. That makes it a targeted option for agencies, not a default pick for every business. Pricing is not public. Ask for a quote that covers your agency’s solicitation and records requirements, plus any relevant plan limits.
What works
- Covers sourcing, contracts and purchasing
- Digital scorecards support bid evaluation
- AI extracts invoice data
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Monthly and annual billing terms are not published
- No free plan is listed
- Best for e-invoicingTradeshiftTradeshift
Tradeshift combines enterprise accounts-payable needs with multi-country e-invoicing and compliance coverage. The published information says suppliers can send up to 30 invoices quarterly, and a free plan is noted. Buyer pricing is custom and unpublished. Confirm whether the invoice limit applies to your use case and request a quote for the buyer-side capabilities.
What works
- E-invoicing compliance coverage in more than 70 countries
- Captures e-invoices, PDFs, OCR and PO-flip submissions
- Validates invoice data against business rules
What doesn't
- Enterprise buyer pricing is custom
- Buyer seat and usage limits are not published
- Supplier fees apply above 30 quarterly transactions
- Best for complex sourcing eventsKeelvarKeelvar
Keelvar is aimed at large enterprise teams running complex RFx and e-auction events or managing changing supplier rates. That focus makes it a specialized sourcing option rather than a general purchasing recommendation. Pricing is custom, and the published material lacks user feedback. Get a quote and references that match your event complexity and supplier needs.
What works
- Agents can build events, engage suppliers and analyze bids
- Automates sourcing from intake through award
- Optimizer supports scenario analysis across multiple variables
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Seat limits are not published
- Usage limits are not published
- Best for sourcing automationGlobalityGlobality
Globality is positioned for sourcing workflows across strategic and tail spend, with human review options listed. It may suit organizations looking to automate parts of sourcing while retaining review. Pricing is opaque, and the published information offers too little public evidence to judge value. Ask for a detailed demo scope, customer references and a written quote.
What works
- Covers intake through supplier selection
- Creates RFx scopes and pricing sheets
- Can search beyond the company supplier database
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Monthly and annual prices are not published
- Plan inclusions are not listed
- Best for invoice complianceBaswareBasware
Basware targets enterprise finance teams with e-invoicing needs and invoice compliance requirements. Its invoice and compliance coverage is a clear reason to shortlist it when those are the core needs. Pricing is not published, and the published material notes mixed, limited user feedback. Verify country coverage, workflow fit, pricing and references before making it a finalist.
What works
- Covers invoice processing through payment
- Includes e-invoicing, enrichment and archiving
- Combines invoice compliance and payment protection
What doesn't
- Starting price and plan details are not published
- Billing cadence is not published
- No free trial is listed in the published pricing data
- Best for public procurementBonfire by EunaBonfire by Euna
Bonfire by Euna is built around government procurement use cases, including public solicitations and centralized supplier and contract data. That makes it a targeted option for agencies, not a default pick for every business. Pricing is not public. Ask for a quote that covers your agency’s solicitation and records requirements, plus any relevant plan limits.
What works
- Covers sourcing, contracts and purchasing
- Digital scorecards support bid evaluation
- AI extracts invoice data
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published
- Monthly and annual billing terms are not published
- No free plan is listed
- Best for fleet costsCorcentricCorcentric
Corcentric is aimed at organizations managing sizable fleets and businesses in transportation or manufacturing, with reducing DSO also listed as a use case. It is a narrower fit than general procurement suites. Pricing is opaque in the published material, leaving value unproven. Request a quote tied to fleet scope and collections needs before comparing alternatives.
What works
- Targets lower fleet total cost of ownership
- Includes supplier pricing and vehicle lifecycle goals
- Aims to improve visibility into fleet operations
What doesn't
- Pricing and billing terms are not published
- No plan details or price comparisons are available
- Free-trial terms are not published
- Best for services procurementSAP FieldglassSAP Fieldglass
SAP Fieldglass is relevant to organizations evaluating contingent-workforce management or services procurement offerings, particularly buyers able to request a custom quote. The published information says to confirm exact capabilities and configuration, so do not assume the product matches your needs based on category alone. Clarify scope, setup and pricing before comparing it with other options.
What works
- Pricing notes list four distinct Fieldglass offerings.
- A contingent workforce management offering is listed.
- A services procurement offering is listed.
What doesn't
- Starting price is not published.
- Monthly and annual rates are not published.
- The published SAP homepage does not describe Fieldglass.
- Best for verified product fitOmneaOmnea
Omnea ranks last because the published information raises a product-identity concern: its listed best-for description points to cemetery teams evaluating mapping software, not procurement. Do not shortlist it until you confirm which product is being quoted. Pricing is not published. Verify the vendor, product name and capabilities in writing before spending time on a procurement evaluation.
What works
- Basic lists standard cemetery mapping
- Records management includes deceased-record search
- Core lists sales management and standard reporting
What doesn't
- Published description names Byond by OpusXenta, not Omnea
- Feature details describe cemetery software, not procurement
- No public starting price is listed
03How we chose
We compare procurement tools on published pricing, plan limits, documentation and user sentiment on Reddit. We look for evidence about purchasing workflows, supplier onboarding, approvals and spend visibility, then consider which buyers each tool may suit. When a vendor does not publish a price or limit, we mark it as not published rather than estimate it. Reddit comments are anecdotal, not proof of product performance. No hands-on testing, benchmarks or screenshots are part of this methodology; claims should be attributed to the vendor’s pricing page, docs or users.
04Start with the workflow you need to fix
Procurement software is a broad category. Before comparing vendors, map the steps your team needs to manage: purchase requests, approvals, supplier onboarding and spend tracking. Decide which steps are essential and which are optional. A company focused on routing requests may not need the same setup as one looking to manage supplier records or coordinate purchasing across departments.
List the people involved, approval rules and systems the process must connect to. Then ask each vendor to show how your specific workflow would work, including exceptions such as an unapproved supplier or a request that exceeds a budget. Treat demos and documentation as evidence to verify your requirements, not proof that every plan includes the feature. If a vendor does not publish a capability or plan limit, ask for written confirmation before comparing it with alternatives.
05Compare total cost and switching effort
Do not compare vendors on a headline price alone. Check whether pricing is published, what the quoted plan includes, and whether user, spend, supplier or workflow limits apply. If the pricing page does not state a price or cap, record it as not published and request a quote. Ask about implementation, support, integrations and any charges that could change the first-year cost; do not assume these are included.
Before switching, document your current approval rules, supplier information and purchasing records. Ask the prospective vendor what can be imported, what needs to be rebuilt and what your team must do during migration. Verify these answers in the docs or contract. Compare the likely effort with the problem you are trying to solve. A lower listed price may not settle the decision if required capabilities or migration details remain unclear.
Questions people ask
How much does procurement software cost?
There is no single price to use across this category. Check each vendor’s pricing page for published rates and plan limits. If the vendor does not publish a price, treat it as not published and request a quote. Confirm what the quote includes and ask about implementation and support costs.
What should we look for in procurement software?
Start with the workflows you need to manage: purchasing, supplier onboarding, approvals and spend tracking. Identify required users, approval paths and integrations, then check whether the vendor documents those needs for the plan you are considering. Ask for written clarification where pricing, limits or capabilities are not published.
How do we compare procurement vendors fairly?
Use the same checklist for every vendor: published price, plan limits, required workflows, documentation, implementation details and user feedback. Separate documented facts from vendor claims and anecdotal Reddit comments. Mark missing information as not published instead of filling gaps with assumptions.
What should we plan before switching procurement software?
Map current approval rules, supplier information and purchasing records before choosing a migration date. Ask the vendor what can be imported, what must be rebuilt and what your team needs to handle. Confirm the migration scope and any related costs in writing, especially when the docs do not specify them.